The Harlan County Coal War: A Bloody Chapter in Appalachian History

Coal mining has shaped much of Appalachia for over 140 years, becoming the economic backbone of communities across the region. For the miners of Harlan County, Kentucky, however, this prosperity came at a high price. The fight for fair wages and better working conditions reached a boiling point during the Great Depression, culminating in one of the bloodiest labor disputes in American history: the Harlan County Coal War.

The Roots of Conflict

By the early 20th century, coal miners across Appalachia were striving for better working conditions and fair wages through union organizing efforts. The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) was at the forefront of these efforts, particularly in West Virginia and Kentucky. But in Harlan County, the fight for unionization was fierce and violent.

Harlan County, often synonymous with the struggles of Appalachia, became a battleground during the Great Depression. Coal operators were hit hard by the economic downturn, and demand for coal plummeted. To stay afloat, these operators slashed workers’ wages by 10% in 1931. It was this move by the Harlan County Coal Operators Association that sparked widespread unrest among miners, many of whom had already been living on the edge of poverty.

Strikes, Firings, and Forced Evictions

The wage cut prompted the UMWA to ramp up its organizing efforts, but the coal operators retaliated by firing union members and evicting them from company-owned housing. Entire towns were controlled by the coal companies, leaving workers and their families with few places to turn. One such refuge was the town of Everts, where many displaced miners sought shelter.

By February 1931, nearly 6,000 miners were on strike, with only 900 still working. Private mine guards, deputized by the county sheriff, J.H. Blair, were tasked with protecting the working miners and the coal companies. Conflict between striking miners and these armed guards became inevitable.

The Battle of Everts

One of the most infamous events during the Harlan County Coal War was the Battle of Everts, which took place on May 5, 1931. A group of striking miners ambushed strikebreakers as they arrived at the mine, opening fire on them. The resulting shootout left three strikebreakers and one miner dead.

In response, the Kentucky governor sent the National Guard to restore order. To the dismay of the striking miners, the National Guard didn’t protect their rights but instead broke up picket lines and helped secure the mines for the operators.

"Which Side Are You On?"

The violence and oppression against union organizers in Harlan County didn’t stop there. Striking miners were labeled "reds" by Sheriff Blair, reflecting the broader anti-communist sentiment of the time. In a particularly famous incident, Sheriff Blair and his deputies raided the home of Florence Reece, the wife of a union leader. While searching for her husband, they ransacked the house and set up an ambush in hopes of killing him. Reece wrote the famous union song, "Which Side Are You On?" in the aftermath of this terrifying ordeal.

Her lyrics captured the grim reality of life in Harlan County during the coal wars, where there was no neutral ground. As Reece later explained, "If you wasn’t a gun thug, you was a union man."

Communist Influence and Ongoing Violence

Adding fuel to the fire, the Communist Party attempted to organize Appalachian miners through the National Miners Union (NMU), a rival to the UMWA. While they managed to establish soup kitchens and support the striking miners, the NMU’s efforts ultimately failed. Anti-communist sentiment, bolstered by fears of atheism and radicalism, led to widespread rejection of the NMU, and its organizers were often targeted with violence.

The coal war continued into the mid-1930s, with violent skirmishes, bombings, and assassinations becoming common. One of the more notorious incidents involved the bombing of union organizer Elman Middleton’s car in 1935, which left him in pieces, with his car’s engine found a quarter of a mile away.

Legislative Change and the End of the War

Amid the violence, significant political change helped improve conditions for miners. The passage of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) and the Wagner Act outlawed many of the practices used by coal operators to crush union efforts. These laws prohibited company-run unions, blacklists, and discrimination against workers for union activity.

In 1939, after nearly a decade of violence and unrest, an agreement was finally reached between the coal operators and miners. The war may have officially ended, but tensions in Harlan County would simmer for decades, occasionally flaring up again during later strikes in the 1940s, 50s, and beyond.

Legacy of the Harlan County Coal War

The Harlan County Coal War left a lasting impact on labor movements in America. It was a vivid reminder of the harsh realities faced by coal miners and the sacrifices made for the rights workers enjoy today. The legacy of this bloody struggle is immortalized in films like Harlan County, USA, and in the haunting melody of “Which Side Are You On?”

Though the days of the coal wars are long past, the story of Harlan County remains an enduring symbol of the fight for justice and dignity in the workplace. As Florence Reece’s song still asks, "Which side are you on?"